Excerpted from Educating Students Who Have Visual Impairments with Other Disabilities, edited by Sharon Z. Sacks, Ph.D., & Rosanne K. Silberman, Ed.D.

Copyright © 1999 by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.

Before educational programming can begin for a student who has a visual impairment with other disabilities, the significant people in the student's life must understand the influence that vision loss has on learning. Vision mediates the world around us and gives meaning to objects, concepts, and ideas. Students who do not have visual impairments learn through imitation and observation; they experience the world mostly through the visual sense and integrate all of their experiences through incidental learning. For example, students who do not have visual impairments, for the most part, learn to play hopscotch by watching their peers. They may ask adults or older peers questions about the rules of the game; but generally, they acquire the skills to play hopscotch through imitation and observation. Students who have visual impairments, however, may require the assistance of a parent, teacher, or peer to explain the rules and concepts involved in playing hopscotch. Even after several levels of instruction have occurred, the students may need adaptations and physical support by others to play the game.

Students who have visual impairments with other disabilities may learn differently from their counterparts without disabilities. The influence of vision loss and of auditory, behavioral, cognitive, physical, or linguistic challenges certainly has an impact on the way in which students learn. The following list provides characteristics that help families and professionals to best determine the most effective mode of instruction or intervention.

1. Generalization of skills: Many students with visual impairments, particularly those who have congenital blindness, may exhibit difficulty transferring skills acquired in context to another. It is especially important that instruction take place in natural contexts and at appropriate times so that the student internalizes meaning to the task. If, for example, a student is learning to brush his or her teeth, then it would be important for tooth-brushing to occur in the bathroom after a meal.
   
   
2. Concrete versus abstract learning: Students develop concepts about the world around them through exploration, observation, and early experiences. Understanding of abstract ideas or concepts is acquired by visual cues and incidental learning activities. For example, a young student without visual impairments quickly learns that when you say, "Put the TV dinner in the oven," it does not mean put the entire dinner, box and all, in the oven. Unless a student with visual impairment is given the opportunity to explore a TV dinner tactually and learn that the TV dinner is inside a box and must be taken out of the box and unwrapped before preparation can begin, the concept of "put the TV dinner in the oven" may mean put the entire package in the oven. Some students with visual impairments may require hands-on learning experiences throughout their educational program in order to make sense of concepts and strategies for instruction that are more abstract.
   
   Often, the only way that a student can learn to acquire a new skill is through repetitive learning. For example, many students who have visual impairments and who exhibit cognitive delays may be taught a specific route to the cafeteria. Any change or modification in the route may confuse or frustrate the student.
   
   
3. Attention span and distractibility: When initiating instructional programs for students who have visual impairments with other disabilities, the teacher must determine how long a student can attend to a specific task with and without supervision. Also, the environment in which learning occurs can influence the student's ability to stay on task and to maintain appropriate behavior. Many students with visual impairments are distracted by loud noises, the hum of fluorescent lights, a visually cluttered classroom, and verbal commotion by others in the same environment. Students with visual impairments require organization and structure to maintain control over their learning environments. They require auditory, tactile, or visual cues to anticipate the transition from activity to the next; however, an overload of visual, tactile, or auditory information can cause students to "shut down" and refuse to work.
   
   
4. Auditory versus visual learning: One would assume that most students with visual impairments learn most effectively through auditory modes. In fact, may students who have visual impairments with other disabilities have auditory perceptual delays. Although these students may be able to hear, they are unable to process information auditorily; they exhibit difficulties with auditory memory and with following a sequence of directions. Some students who have low vision may be visual learners. They have enough functional vision to process information visually. These students usually use a combination of auditory and visual skills to interpret information, and they are able to interpret abstract concepts into visual images in their minds. Usually, these students are cognitively astute and exhibit excellent spatial awareness.
   
   
5. Tactile defensiveness versus tactile exploration: Many students who have visual impairments with other disabilities, particularly those whose disabilities are caused by premature birth, may exhibit an intolerance of certain textures and foods. They also may resist being touched or held by family members or teachers. This may be a result, in part, of early traumatic medical experiences and numerous hospitalizations. Often, these students must gain trust and awareness of individuals in their environment before any physical contact can occur. Also, these students may require order and structure in their daily routines in order to anticipate people and activities.
   
   When students are given opportunities to co-act and to interact with parents and teachers in a nonthreatening manner, it is more likely that students will want to become a part of their environment. It is important for students to understand the cause and effect of certain objects, toys, foods, and behaviors so that tactile exploration becomes purposeful. The student must learn, for example, that when he or she touches a tactile switch, it activates a musical computer game. The music then becomes the reward. If parents and teachers want a toddler who has a sever visual impairment with physical difficulties to begin making food choices on his or her food tray, then presenting finger foods that are pleasing tactually will stimulate exploration. The toddler learns quickly that if he or she explores the food tray (initially with parent or teacher co-action), then he or she will find something special to eat.
   
   
6. Passive learning versus active learning: By nature, students exhibit a range of personality types. Some students are more passive and shy, whereas others are more active and outgoing. These behavior traits are influenced by the individuals or cultural values that are a part of the student's environment. Students learn relatively quickly how to construct a world that is comfortable and nonintrusive. Students who have visual impairments with other disabilities can be susceptible to "learned helplessness" (Seligman, 1991). Seligman demonstrated, initially through animal experiments, that if an individual is not given opportunities to gain control or to experience a range of activities independently, then he or she is more likely to yield to the support of others, exhibiting passive or helpless behavior. Unknowingly, parents, teachers, or other professionals may reinforce this phenomenon by having lower expectations for the student's academic, social, motor, or vocational performance. Also, they may do too much for the student and not allow the student to make choices or complete tasks independently.